Theoretical traditions in sociology

Theoretical traditions in sociology

As we have seen, the classical founders of sociology Durkheim, Marx and Weber adopted different approaches to their studies. Durkheim emphasized the coercive strength of social forces in generating shared values and consensus. Marx also saw social structures as highly significant, but argued that conflict and inequality were endemic in all societies. On the other hand, Max Weber focused attention on the meaningful character of social life and the social actions of individuals. These basic differ- ences have persisted throughout the history of sociology, developing into three broad socio- logical traditions of enquiry: functionalism (Durkheim), conflict theory (Marx) and social action or 'interactionist' approaches (Weber).

Some of the major trades and economic transactions today take place on the stock market in highly rationalized format, with little or none of the personal interaction which would have been common in bartering and markets before the advent of modernity.

The three traditions are introduced briefly below, but you will encounter arguments and ideas that dratw upon them throughout the book. After a while you should be able to iden- tify which tradition any particular research study you come across is closest to.

Functionalism

Functionalism holds that society is a complex system whose various parts work together to produce stability and that sociology should investigate their relationships. For example, we can analyse the religious beliefs and customs of a society by showing how they relate to other institutions because the different parts of a society always develop in close relation to one another. Functionalists, including Comte and Durkheim, have often used an organic analogy, comparing the operation of society to a living organism. They argue that the parts of society work together, just as the various parts of the human body do, for the benefit of society as a whole. To study a bodily organ such as the heart, we need to show how it relates to other parts of the body. By pumping blood around the body, the heart plays a vital role in the continuation of the life of the organism. Similarly, analysing the function of a social institution such as the education system means showing the part it plays in the smooth running of a society.

Functionalism emphasizes the importance of moral consensus in maintaining order and stability. Moral consensus exists when most people in a society share the same values. Functionalists regard order and balance as the normal state of society, and this social equilibrium is grounded in the moral consensus among society's members. For instance, Durkheim argued that religious beliefs reaffirm people's adherence to core social values, thereby contributing to the maintenance of social cohesion.

Until the 1960s, functionalism was probably the leading theoretical tradition in sociology, particularly in the United States. Talcott Parsons (1902-79) and Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) were two of its most prominent exponents. Merton's version of functionalism has been particularly influential. He distinguished between manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are those known to, and intended by, the participants in a specific type of social activity. Latent functions are consequences of that activity of which the participants are unaware. For înstance, Merton used the rain dance performed by the Hopi tribe of Arizona and New Mexico. The Hopi believe that this ceremony will bring the rain they need for their crops (manifest function). But the rain dance, Merton argued, also of promoting cohesion of Hopi society (latent function). A major part of sociological explanations, according to Merton, consists in uncovering such latent functions of social activities and institutions.

Sport is part of the school curriculum ostensibly io encourage healthy living. However, a functionalist approach woulc also see it as an important socialization process to toach chidren both competitiveness and how to work as a team

Merton also distinguished between functions and dysfunctions. To look for the dysfunctional aspects of social behaviour means focusing on features of social life that challenge the existing order of things. For example, it is mistaken to suppose that religion is always functional- that it only contributes to social cohesion, When religious groups disagree with one another the result can be major social conflicts, causing widespread social disruption, Thus, wars have often been fought between religious communities - as can be seen in the struggles berween Protestants and Catholics in European history.

Since the 1980s the popularity of functionalism has waned as its limitations have become apparent. Though it is not true of Merton, many functionalist thinkers focused on stability and social order, minimizing social divisions and inequalities based on factors such as class, race and gender. Functionalism also placed too little emphasis on the role of creative social action within society. Many critics argued that functional analysis attributes to societies social qualities that they do not have. Functionalists often wrote as though whole societies have 'needs' and 'purposes', even though these concepts «make sense only when applied to individual human beings.

Conflict theories

Like functionalists, sociologists using conflict theories emphasize the importance of social structures. They also advance a comprehensive 'model to explain how society works. However, conflict theorists reject functionalism's emphasis on consensus. Instead, they highlight the importance of divisions in society and, in doing so, concentrate on issues of power, inequality and competitive struggle. They tend to see society as composed of distinct groups, each pursuing its own interests, which means the potential for conflict is always present, Conflict theorists examine the tensions between dominant and disadvantaged groups, looking to undlerstand how relationships of control are established and maintained.

Both Marx and later Manist approaches have been highly influential in conflict theory, though it is important to note that by no means all conflict theories are Marxist. Ferminism, for example, is a form of conflict theory which concentrates on gender inequality - the unequal situation between men and women that exists in imost societies. For some feminist theorists, gender inequality is as or more significant than class-based inequality and has a longer history. Male domination of society continues even today, though women's political activism has made an impact in many areas of life, bringing about some measure of more equal treatment (Abbott et al 2005).

As a conflict perspective in sociology, feminism draws attention to issues that sociologists previously ignored. In particular, feminist research and theorizing looks at the micro level as well as the macro world of large social structures. For example, feminists have studied unequal gender relations in domestic situations and other 'private' spheres of life (such as sexual relations) - a controversial move in the 1960s and 1970s (Rahman and Jackson 2010). Feminists have also carried Dut research into the use of gender stereotypes and language in interactions, pointing out and challenging many taken-for-granted 'malestream' assumptions (favouring men over women) built into the structure of how we describe and think about the world. We can see this in numerous everyday words and expressions, such as chairman, mankind (to discuss humanity as such) and man-made. This is a simple illustration of the myriad ways which woinen's subordinate position in society is reflected in the unacknowledged male domination of language.

Of course, feminists do not ignore the macro level either. Many feminist studies have shown that gender inequality is embedded within modern social structures such as legal systems, education and schooling, government and politics, and many more. Similarly, in order to demonstrate the extent and scope of gender inequality, feminist work has made use of official statistics and examined patterns of change over long time periods. Feminist theorizing has continually developed into new areas and types of theory, and these are covered in more detail later in the book.

The conflict tradition in sociology has benefited from feminist research and theorizing. In particular, combining macro- and micro-level studies has shown that evidence of structured incquality can be found in the private sphere of social life every bit as much as in large structires. The 1970s slogan 'the personal is palitical' adequately summarizes why sociology cannot ignore the personal aspects of our everyday lives (Jackson and Jones 1998).

Symbolic interactionism

Weber's social action approach inspired many 'interactionist' forms of sociology. One of the most influential has been symbolic interactionism, which also owes much to the Armerican social philosopher George Herbert Mead (1863-1931). Symbolic interactionism springs from a concern with language and meaning. Mead argues that language allows 11s to become self-conscious beings - aware of ourown individuality and able to see ourselves "as others see us'. The key element in this process is the symbol. A symbol is something that stands for something else. For example, words that refer to objects are symbols which represent what we mean. The word 'spoon' is a symbol we use to describe the utensil that we use to consume soup. Non verbal gestures and forms of communication are also symbols. Waving at someone or making a rude gesture have symbolic value.

Symbolic interactionism directs our attention to the details of interpersonal interaction and how that detall is used to taake sense of what others say and do. Sociologists influenced by symbolic interactionism often focus on face to-face interactionns in the context of everyday life. They stress the role interactions play in creating society and its institutions. Max Weber was an important indirect influence on this theoretical approach because, although he acknowledged the existence of social structures, he held that these were created through the actions of individuals.

While the symbolic interactionist perspective has yielded many insights into the nature of our actions in the course of day to day social life, it has been criticized for ignoring the larger issues of power and social structures and how they serve to constrain individual action. However, one very good example of interactionism that does take into account such issues is Arlie Hochschild's (1983) The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Hochschild observed training sessions and carried out interviews at Delta Airlines' Stewardess Training Centre in Atlanta, USA. She watched flight attendants being trained to manage their feelings as well as leaming other skills. Hochschild recalled the comments of one instructor, a pilot: 'Now girls, I want you to go out there and really smile', he instructed. "Your smile is your biggest asset. I want you to go out there and use it. Smile. Really smile. Really lay it on.'

Hochschild's research found that, as Western economies have become increasingly based on the delivery of services, the emotional style of the work we do needs to be understood. Her study of 'customer service' training mighs be familiar to anyone who has worked in fast food restaurants, shops or hars. Hochschild calls this training a form of 'emotional labour - labour that requires the management o feelings in order to create a publicly observ able and acceptable facial and bodily display According to Hochschild, companies providing services increasingly lay claim not onl- to workers' physical activity but also to thei emotions.

This research considered an aspect of life- that most people took for granted and showe that sociology couid deepen our understanding of it. She found that service workers - like physical labourers - often feel a sense of  distance or alienation from the particular aspect of themselves that is given up in work. The physical labourer's arm, for example, might come to feel like a piece of machinery and only incidentally a part of the person moving it. Likewise, service workers often told Hochschild that their smiles were on them but often feel a sense of not of them. In other words, they felt distanced from their own emotions. Hochschild's book is an influential application of symbolic interactionism, and many other scholars have built on her ideas to expand the interactionist tradition.

Traditions and theories

Functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism are theoretical traditions broad, overall orientations to the subject matter of sociology. However, we can make a distinction between these broad traditions and particular theories which develop from them. Theories are more narrowly focused and are attempts to explain particular social conditions, events or social changes. For example, feminism is part of the conflict tradition, as feminists see a basic conflict in society between the interests of men and women. But feminist sociologists have also devised numerous narrower theories to explain specific aspects of gender relations (patterned relationships between men and women), such as why more married women are entering paid work, why women are still seen as responsible for childcare, or why young men now do less well in education than young women. Many theories of this kind have been developed in the different areas of life that sociologists study.

The fact that sociology is not dominated by a single theoretical tradition might seem to be a sign of weakness, but this is not the case. The jostling of rival traditions and theories is an expression of the vitality of the sociological enterprise. In studying human beings - ourselves - theoretical diversity rescues us from dogma and stagnation. Human behaviour is many-sided, and it is unlikely that single theoretical perspective could cover all of its aspects. Diversity in theoreicai thinking provides a rich source of ideas which stimulate the creative capacities that are so essential to progress in social scientific work.